Assessment of Wild Edible Fruit Plants in East Oromia Region, Ethiopia

Alemayehu Diriba; Wasihun Gizaw; Shimelis Dekeba

doi:doi:10.11648/j.ijsts.20251303.12

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Assessment of Wild Edible Fruit Plants in East Oromia Region, Ethiopia

Alemayehu Diriba^*

, Wasihun Gizaw, Shimelis Dekeba

Published in International Journal of Science, Technology and Society (Volume 13, Issue 3)

Received: 21 May 2025 Accepted: 12 June 2025 Published: 30 June 2025

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Abstract

Wild edible fruit plants are essential standing in all parts of the world as a subsidiary food basket on daily basis. They are means of survival for rural communities with food and feed consumption, especially during times of drought, famine, shocks, and risks. This study intended to identify, and document scientific data, to get the constraint and opportunity potential of Wild edible fruit plants. Implementation through assessed species, partly used, habitat, mode of uses, flowering months, fruiting months, and factors of threats of wild edible fruits plants. Structured and semi-structured questionnaire interviews, key informant guided, and species quantification along 18 transact lines on 60 sampled quadrants were used to collect data in the west Hararghe zone at Daro-Lebu, Chiro, and Gumbi Bordode Weredas on six PAs. A total of 120 randomly selected sample households were interviewed for data collection. Both quantitative and qualitative data analyses were made. Descriptive analyses were made to analyze the data using SPSS version 16.0. The study embraced a total of 55 Wild edible fruit plants In addition to food values, these plants provide diverse benefits to the existing community including income, fuel wood, fencing, construction, medicine, and fodder. The top five highly impersonated wild edible fruit plant species by respondents were Psidium guajava, Mimusops kummel, Carissa spinarum L., Rosa abyssinica, Ficus sycomorus, and Oncoba spinosa forssk. However, most of them were threatened by anthropogenic factors through misconception utilities. The threat factors such as land degradation and grazing, clearing of forests for agriculture, fire, timber and charcoal, Stem, leaves, root, and bark harvest. To alleviate, the entire threat of wild edible fruit plant species; a community-based forest management system, awareness creation, and growing of wild edible fruit plant species at farms and homesteads level, is mandatory for any forest resource users. The other point is the absence of seedlings and saplings under wild edible fruit plant species in its habitat is an indicator of a regeneration problem. Therefore; the most threatened and unregenerated wild edible fruit plant species of the study areas priority should be given to the critical collection, domestication, in-situ and ex-situ conservation, and promotion of on-farm cultivation in the form of agroforestry systems. Further investigation should be considered on the collection, nutrient content analyses, in-situ and ex-situ conservation, wise utilization, and popularization of Wild edible fruit plants through forest management. These are vital points to be deliberated forward.

Published in	International Journal of Science, Technology and Society (Volume 13, Issue 3)
DOI	10.11648/j.ijsts.20251303.12
Page(s)	97-118
Creative Commons	This is an Open Access article, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, provided the original work is properly cited.
Copyright	Copyright © The Author(s), 2025. Published by Science Publishing Group

Keywords

Threat Factors, Forest, Anthropogenic Effect, Wild Edible Fruit Plants

1. Introduction

Wild edible fruit plants refer to species that are neither cultivated nor domesticated, which are available from their wild natural habitat and used as sources of food

[4]

. Even though the primary dependence of most agricultural societies on staple crop plants such as wheat, maize, and rice, the conventional eating of wild edible plant products is used as food. In human history continues until the present day observed over worldwide are more than 7,000 wild edible plant species

[7]

. Wild edible fruit plants are closing food gaps and play an important role in maintaining livelihood security for many people in developing countries during seasonal food shortages, as emergency food aid (Afolayan and Jimoh, 2009). Moreover, the indigenous Wild edible fruit plants are adapted to the local culture and environment welfare through natural growing manner with a minimum requirement of external inputs and maintenance such as management, fertilizer, and pesticides are the main advantage

[8]

Even though Wild edible fruit plants can easily be integrated into sustainable farming systems by the majority of the rural population, they are still not treasured as cultivated fruit trees, such as mango, avocado, Papaya, and orange due to lack of scientific support. Many countries have given priority to the documenting of Wild edible fruit plants and the associated indigenous knowledge. Countries such as India, Mexico, Bolivia, Spain, and Turkey have in-depth Ethnobotanical information on Wild edible fruit plant's utility. By contrast, in Ethiopia conducted on Wild edible fruit plants utilities and dietary analyses were shallow and addressed only an insignificant portion of the country

[6]

Therefore; traditional knowledge of wild plants, generally in Africa and particularly in Ethiopia is endangered of being lost, as habits, value systems, and the natural environment change

[8]

. This study also reflected that the endangered of Wild edible fruit plants is due to more anthropogenic factors, such as land degradation and grazing, clearing of forest for Agriculture, fire, timber and charcoal, Stem, leaves, root, and bark harvest. These factors might be occurred as a result of care failure knowledge especially among the new generations, modernization, and urban dwellers to preserve Wild edible fruit plants to be valuable for future generations. So it needs to be conserved and maintained through sustainable utilization without jeopardizing it for future generations

[5]

In general, regardless of their importance, Wild edible fruit plants are faced with serious threats of anthropogenic and environmental factors in the country due to agricultural expansion, overgrazing/overstocking, deforestation, and urbanization

[2, 3, 10]

. In Ethiopia, where more than 80% of the population is rural, the people have depended on their traditional knowledge of the utility of Wild edible fruit plants with shallow form without exhaustive documentation of their contribution, management, and utilization in their surroundings. This is particularly true in study areas and in the rural population of West Hararghe Zone, where rural communities of the area depend on Wild edible fruit plants for various purposes such as supplementary food, feed during bad times, and income and medicine with barely.

However, there are no any researches so far done, on Wild edible fruit plants in the study area to be as the impetus for policymakers, NGOs, and end users to sustain utilization and management without jeopardizing the future generation. Therefore; the study intended to identify and document Wild edible fruit plants associated with Ethnobotanical knowledge of indigenous communities on part used, habitat, perception, threat factors, related to utility and management as well as constraint and opportunity potentials as to be input for West Hararghe community and other related areas of the country.

1.1. General Objective

To assess Wild edible fruit plants in the West Hararghe zone, Oromia Region.

1.2. Specific Objectives

1) To identify Wild edible fruit plants in the study area.

2) To document scientific information and utilization of commonly used Wild edible fruit plants.

3) To know the constraint and opportunity potential of Wild edible fruit plants in combating food insecurity for rural communities.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Selection of the Study Area

Before the socio-economic survey, all Weredas’ of the Zone which have the potential on growing edible fruit trees and shrub species could be identified. Based on the information gathered, three potential Weredas from each agroecology zones could be selected. From three selected Weredas (Daro-Lebu, Chiro, and Gumbi-Bordode), from each Wereda, two PAs were selected. A total of six kebele (Metegudesa and Jilbo PA from Daro-Lebu Wereda, Halewagora, and Nejabas PA from Chiro Wereda and Burqaberkele and Legarba PA from Gumbi-Bordode Wereda could be selected and used for the socio-economic survey.

2.2. Description of the Study Areas

The study was carried out in the west Hararghe zone, at three Weredas (Namely Daro-Lebu, Chiro, and Gumbi-Bordode). From each of the selected Weredas; 2 PAs and over 6 PAs were selected to obtain all necessary information about edible fruit tree and shrub species of the study areas.

Daro-Lebu Wereda is one of Wereda of West Hararghe zone in Oromia Regional State. It is located at 80 15’00” N-80 43’00” N latitudes and 400 17’00” E- 400 45’00” E longitudes. The Wereda is bordered by Habro in the northeast, East Arsi Zone, in the south-west, Hawi Gudina Wereda, in the north, Anchar Wereda, in the north, and Boke Wereda in the east. Daro-Lebu Wereda located at a distance of 118km and 478km from the Zonal town is Chiro and Addis Ababa; respectively. The average altitude is (1147-2300 m.a.s.l.).

The basic agro-climatic conditions are Weyina-dega (44%) and Kola (56%). Mechara Agricultural Research Center receives on average during the belg rainy season (February 26, March 90, April 157, and May 128mm) and the kiremt rainy season (June 101, July 144, August 158, and September 127mm). The mean annual temperature is 21°C with a mean annual minimum temperature of 15°C and a maximum of 28°C Mechara Agricultural Research Center. The farming system of Daro-Lebu Wereda is mixed farming. The main types of crops grown were Cash and cereal crops such as chat, coffee and teff, barley, maize, sorghum, etc. respectively.

Daro-Lebu had rapid population changes which demanded expanding of agricultural land, fuel wood consumption, and residential area. The woreda had a total human population of 364613 of which 186097 (51.04%) are male and 178514.04 (48.96%) are female. Out of the total population, 13.56% are urban dwellers. Population density is 82.53 persons per square kilometer and had a total area of 441788.7 hectares (4417.95/km2). The land use pattern of Wereda that cultivable land 86.8%, pasture (1.8%), forest (4.14%), and remaining (7.26%) is considered mountainous and swampy.

Chiro Wereda is located in the West Hararghe Zone of the Oromia National Regional state at about 324 km East of Finfinne, the capital city of the Oromia regional state. The capital town of the Wereda is Chiro, which is also the capital town of the Zone. Normally the Wereda is divided into three major agro-ecological zones. These are Lowland with 22 kebele, Midland with 13 kebele, and highland altitude with 4 kebele. The Wereda bordered Mieso in the North, Gemechis in the South, Guba-koricha in the West, and Tulo in the East. Mixed farming is the dominant practice in the Wereda (98%) and the rest is of the pastoral production system (2%).

The Wereda is founded at an average altitude between (1100-2500 m.a.s.l.). From the total land area/topography of the Wereda, 45% is plain and 55% is a steep slope. The Wereda is mainly characterized by steep slopes and mountains with rugged topography, which is highly vulnerable to erosion problems.

The Wereda has a maximum and minimum temperature of 23°C and 12°C respectively and maximum and minimum rainfall of 1800 mm and 900 mm respectively. The rainfall type is bimodal and erratic. The main rainy season is from June to September for the highland and midland areas and from March to April for the lowland. The short rainy season is from March to May for the highland and midland and for the lowland around July. The amount of rainfall is relatively adequate in the highland and midland than in the lowland.

Soil types of Wereda are sandy soil, clay soil (black soil), and loamy soil types that are 25.5%, 32%, and 42.5%; respectively according to 2003 E. C. data from the Office of Agriculture and Rural Development. The soil types vary with the topography mainly black soils are observed in the highland and midlands, while one can see red soil in the lowland areas. The total land area of the Wereda is 70,912.8 hectares out of which 31659.1 hectares is cultivated land, 30667.4 hectares is uncultivated land, 8104.3 hectares is covered by forest, and 482 hectares is grazing land. Shortage of land is common in the Wereda. Among the main reasons is the increasing population density at a very alarming rate and land fragmentation due to the high number of children in the household. The average land holding status in the area is 4 (0.5-0.25 ha).

Gumbi-Bordode Wereda is found in the West Hararghe Zone of the Oromia National Regional state at about 300 km East of Finfinne, the capital city of Oromia regional state, and at the longitude, 09^o13’ North and 040^o27.7” East. The capital town of distract is Bordode, which is located at 65 km North of Chiro, the capital town of the zone. The Wereda has only one major agro-ecological zone which is lowland. In the Wereda more of the farming community is agro-pastoralist covering 98% and 2% is pastoral community.

The Wereda is founded at an average altitude of 1310 m.a.s.l. Almost about 95% of the Wereda has plain topography (data from the Office of Agriculture).

The Wereda has a maximum and minimum temperature of 28°C and 16°C respectively and maximum and minimum rainfall of 750 mm and 500 mm respectively (data from Office of Pastoral and Agro-pastoral Development of the Wereda). The rainfall type is mono-modal and erratic. The main rainy season is from mid-June to mid-August and the amount of rainfall is inadequate.

In the Wereda there are sandy soil, clay soil (black soil), and loamy soil types covering 10%, 75%, and 15%; respectively that data from the Office of Agriculture and Rural Development.

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Figure 1. Study area Map.

2.3. Method of Data Collection

2.3.1. Socioeconomic Survey

The socioeconomic survey involved various data collection techniques, such as key informant interviews, semi-structured questionnaires, focus-group discussions, and field observations. Semi-structured interviews were used with 120 respondent households that were randomly selected from 3 selected Weredas of the zone. From each of the selected Weredas; 2 PAs were selected to obtain all necessary information about Wild edible fruit plants of the study areas. This is an effective method that can even be used with children or illiterate people. All sampled households were asked independently the same question to freely name orally all the Wild edible fruit plants they know as it comes into their memory. During the survey took place; different socio-economic factors (age, household size, sex, education, etc…) of the respondents were identified. In addition to the household interviews, important information was collected from key informants. These key informants were those living in the study area for a long time and who have a good understanding of Wild edible fruit plants.

The collected data were providing an overview of the socio-economic and biophysical environment of the study areas. As well, field visits and vegetation inventory was applied at each of the study areas/Kebele along the border of the natural forest near the study area to cross-check the reality and to observe the potential of all wild edible fruit plants for more information.

By using the above various data collection techniques, necessary data were collected to know indigenous knowledge of rural communities on utilization, role in food security, opportunity, constraints, perception, and factors of the threat of wild edible fruit plants of the study area.

2.3.2. Vegetation Inventory

Inventories on vegetation coverage of wild edible fruit plants of the study area were carried out, to obtain information on the type, trend, and production potential based on their existence and retrieval of sapling and seedling regeneration. The inventory was produced that ‘shrub’ used to describe woody perennial plants that remain low and produce multiple shoots from the base, while ‘trees’ refers to woody perennial plants that produce one main trunk or bole and a more or less distinct and elevated crown.

Inventories on vegetation coverage of wild fruit plants in the study area were conducted by systematic transect sampling. Two agroecology zones (midland and lowland) in each of the study areas, with 3 parallel lines, 200m apart between each transect line and with an interval of 200m distance were laid. On each transect line, 20×20m (400m²) quadrants were implemented. Therefore; in this study 18 transect lines and 60 quadrants were laid out over all the study areas. On each plot/quadrant, all Wild edible fruit plants were documented by their vernacular name, later converted to the scientific name using a tree identification manual. The density of Wild edible fruit plants on each plot/quadrant was expressed by counting stems and converting the number to a per hectare basis that over all of the study area coverage was about (2.4ha). Data on the estimated quantity of edible fruit plants’ products expected from each tree/shrub were collected by interviewing the collectors. The number of edible parts expected from each plant species of a certain size class could be estimated by asking the same question of several collectors. Following this method, in this study, 12 collectors participated from both agroecology zone, to obtain the real identification of edible parts of the various trees and shrubs on each plot.

2.3.3. Data Analysis

The collected data were analyzed employing descriptive statistics, with Microsoft Excel and SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Sciences, version 16) to meet the objectives based on the given parameters.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Characteristics of Sample Household

Because of the country's cultural significance, men constituted the majority of the respondents in this study. Thus, 120 (91=76%) of the total responses were male, while the remaining (29=24%) were female. The survey result showed that the highest percentage of the respondents’ age was found between 31-45 years (53%); while the lowest percentage was 66-70 years (5%) (Table 1). This indicated that the respondents were at a mature, adult age stage for data quality. The survey result showed that only 48% of the respondents were educated, while 52% were uneducated. The result of the household size of respondents indicated that the highest household size was 2-4 (59%); while the lowest household size was 10-12 (12%). The result of the agro-ecological zone of the study areas observed that (67%) was midland, while (33%) was lowland coverage.

The other main point is the result of farmland size showed that the highest percentage of farmland size was 0.13 ha (37%); while the lowest percentage was 2.5 ha (7%). This indicated that farmers suffered from farmland shortage.

Generally; socio-economic scenarios have an indirect impact on wild edible fruits neither managing nor destroying. For example; according to the respondents’ responses; during the bad time, Wild edible fruit plants were eaten as food and feed. On the other hand; as a result of farmland shortage; there is the distraction of Wild edible fruit plants for agricultural expansion.

Table 1. Socio-economics of respondents’ information.

Sex	Frequency	Percent	Average land holding in hectares	Frequency	Percent
Men	91	76	0.025 ha	28	23
Women	29	24	0.125 ha	11	9
Total	120	100	0.13 ha	44	37
Age			0.25 ha	11	9
18-30	22	18	0.5 ha	13	11
31-45	64	53	1 ha	8	7
46-65	28	23	2.5 ha	5	4
66-70	6	5	Total	120	100
Total	120	100	Agroecology zone
marital status			midland	80	67
Married	112	93	lowland	40	33
Widowed	6	5	Total	120	100
devour	2	2	household size
Total	120	100	10-12	14	12
Educational status			2-6	71	59
Non-educated	62	52	7-9	35	29
primary school	56	46	Total	120	100
secondary school	2	2
Total 120		100

3.2. Qualitative Description of Respondents on Wild Edible Fruit Plants

The respondents were asked crosscheck questions that were listed in (Table 2) below. The respondents were gotten from different sources those are from natural forests, river banks, farm boundaries, and postural lands.

The result of Wild edible fruit plants observed that the highest percentage source of Wild edible fruit plants was collected from the natural forest (34.2%); while the lowest source was collected from postural lands (9.2%).

The infusing factors of Wild edible fruit plants utilization were listed by respondents. The result of infusing factors of wild edible fruits indicated that the highest percentage (23.4%) was observed from supplementary food, feed, and income; while the lowest percentage (10%) was observed from Tradition and hunger of children during keeping of livestock (Table 2). This study in agreement with the other findings elsewhere indicates the supplemental role of Wild edible fruit plants needed during food gaps and famine

[1]

Table 2. Qualitative description of respondents about wild edible fruits across the study areas.

1	Source of Wild edible fruit plants	Frequency	Percent
	Natural forests	50	34.2
	Around river area	33	27.5
	Around farm boundary	26	21.7
	On pasture land	11	9.2
	Total	120	100
2	Influencing factors to use Wild edible fruit plants
	It is sweaty, Medicinal, and has no side effect	13	11.7
	Supplementary food, feed& income	26	23.4
	Supplementary food, feed& income during hanger	25	22.5
	Tradition and hunger of children during keeping livestock	12	10.8
	Total	76	100
3	Role of Wild edible fruit plants in ecological and environmental values
	Attract rainfall and make a green environment	19	16.6
	Improve soil and water conservation	34	28.3
	Maintain climate change	24	20.0
	Maintain weather conditions and sustain ecological balance	32	35.1
	Total	120	100
4	Opportunities in utilizing Wild edible fruit plants
	Ability to grow naturally	65	67.7
	Income opportunity	2	2.0
	Self-distribution	29	30.2
	Total	96	100
5	Constraints in utilizing Wild edible fruit plants
	Climate change	13	11
	Deforestation and overgrazing	44	37
	Some of them have an invasiveness manner	9	8
	Lack of enough information	14	12
	Agricultural expansion	40	33
	Total	120	100
6	The trend of Wild edible fruit plants production over the last 10 years
	Increasing	9	7.5
	Decreasing	109	90.8
	No change	2	1.7
	Total	120	100
7	Perception of respondents in utilizing Wild edible fruit plants
	All people should conserve those trees/shrubs	36	30.0
	Have to be protected and sustained for future	34	28.3
	Seedlings have to be planted on farms and reduce deforestation	50	41.7
	Total	120	100

The role of Wild edible fruit plants in ecological and environmental values indicated that the highest value (35.1%) was observed from maintaining weather conditions and sustaining ecological balance, while the lowest value (16.6%) was recorded from attracting rainfall and making a green environment (Table 2).

The result of opportunities in utilizing Wild edible fruit plants indicated that the highest value (67.7%) was observed under the ability to grow naturally; while the lowest value (2%) was under income opportunity (Table 2).

The result of the limitation of Wild edible fruit plants indicated that the highest value (37%) was observed deforestation and overgrazing; the lowest observation (8%) was obtained from “Some of them have invasiveness manner” (Table 2).

The result of the trend of wild edible fruit plant production over the last 10 years observed that the highest value (90.8) was recorded as “decreasing”; while the lowest value (1.7) was observed as a “no change” alternative (Table 2).

The result on the perception of respondents in utilizing Wild edible fruit plants indicated that the highest value (41.7) was observed in “Seedlings have to be planted on farms and reduce deforestation”; while the lowest value (28.3%) was observed under “protected and sustained for future” (Table 2).

Some farmers are practiced limited management actions (growing in farms and homesteads). This is an indication of the community understands the value and brings under control Wild edible fruit plants However, the management practices are limited compared to other staple food plants. Moreover, Wild edible fruit plants gathered in natural environments without care of the management and exposed to anthropogenic threats, which are deterioration of forest products, being choice/alternative food, cultural ignorance and lack of awareness about the nutritional value of the products could make them being ignored for management. This study in line with Fentahun and Hager (2008) reports a lower level of management for Wild edible fruit plants

[9]

3.3. Diversity of Wild Edible Fruit Plants Across the Study Area

The study revealed that about 55 wild edible fruit tree/shrub species were identified and documented based on important parameters. The results of the habit of Wild edible fruit plants were highly dominated by shrub species and followed by tree species, and the remaining were herbaceous. Species richness observation of Wild edible fruit plants in the study areas was poor based on the Shannon diversity index (0.01): A total of 55 wild edible plant species were recorded in 3 Weredas on 6 PAs (Table 3).

In Daro-Lebu Wereda at Jilbo PA; observation of wild fruit plants showed that the highest percentage (11.8, 8.5 and 7.8%) were recorded under Mimusops kummel, Psidium guajava, and Vangueiria arisepala, respectively; while the lowest percentage (0.7%) was under Myrica salicifolia. Rich, Capparis decidua, Rubus apetalusPoir., Acokanthera schimperi, Rhus glutinosa and Acokanthera schimperi with similar figures (Table 3). In Metagudesa PA; observation of wild fruit plants indicated that the highest percentage (15.9, 13.5, 13.5, and 12.7) were verified under Mimusops kummel, Rosa abyssincia, Psidium guajava, and Syzygium guineense; respectively; while the lowest percentage (0.8%) was under Tamarindus indica, Myrica salicifolia. Richn and Rubus apetalus with similar figures (Table 3).

In the other study area in Chiro Wereda at Halewagora PA; observation of Wild edible fruit plants indicated that the highest percentage (12.7, 12, and 11.7%) were under Oncoba spinosa Forssk., Acacia seyal Del. and Carissa spinarum L., respectively; while the lowest percentage (0.7%) was under Cordia africana, Mimusops kummel, Rytigynia neglecta, Physalis micrantha, Myrica salicifolia. Rich and Piper nigrum with similar figures (Table 3). In Nejabas PA; observation of wild fruit plants indicated that the highest percentage (11.4, 7.9 and 7.1) were under Carissa spinarum L. and Acacia seyal Del., Oncoba spinosa Forssk. and Rubus apetalus Poir.; respectively; while the lowest percentage (0.7%) was under Myrica salicifolia. Rich, Celosia anthelminthica, Rhus natalensis Krauss, Rhoicissus tridentata, and Albizia grandibracteata with similar figures (Table 3).

In the other study area in Gumbi-Bordode Wereda at Burqabarkele PA; observation of Wild edible fruit plants indicated that the highest percentage (9.7, 9.2, and 8.2%) were noted under Opuntia ficus-indica/cactus, Ficus sycomorus and Ziziphus spina‑, respectively; while the lowest percentage (0.5%) was under Lex mitis, Oncoba spinosa Forssk., Combretum molle and Allophylus abyssinicus with similar figure (Table 3). In Legarba PA; observation of wild fruits indicated that the highest percentage (8.8, 77.5.9, and 7) were illustrated under Mimusops kummel, Psidium guajava, Cordia sinensis Lam and Rhus natalensis Krauss, Ficus sycomorus; respectively; while the lowest percentage (0.4%) was under Acacia seyal Del., Oncoba spinosa Forssk. Euclea racemosa, Grewia bicolour, Rubus apetalus, Syzygium guineense and Physalis micrantha Link with similar figures (Table 3).

Table 3. Observation frequency of Wild edible fruit plants by study areas.

No.	Scientific name	Family name	Gumbi-Bordode Wereda				Chiro Wereda				Daro-Lebu Wereda				total
			Burqabarkele PA		Legarba PA		Halewagora PA			Nejabas PA		Jilbo PA		Metagudesa PA
			F	%	F	%	F	%	F	%	F	%	F	%	total
1	Puntia ficus-indica	Cactaceae			4	1.8									4
2	Carissa spinarum L.	Apocynaceae	11	5.6	15	6.6	16	11.3	16	11.4	6	3.9	7	5.6	71
3	Hypoestes aristata	Acanthaceae	9	4.6											9
4	flavescens	Tiliaceae											1	0.8	1
5	Piper nigrum	Piperaceae					1	0.7	1	0.7					2
6	Balanites aegyptiaca	Balantiaceae	2	1.0											2
7	Toddalia asiatica	Rutaceae									1	0.7			1
8	Portulaca quadrifida.	Portulacaceae									3	2.0	3	2.4	6
9	Myrica salicifolia. Rich	Loganiaceae	3	1.5	7	3.1	1	0.7	1	0.7	1	0.7	1	0.8	14
10	Physalis micrantha	Solanaceae					1	0.7							1
11	Vangueiria arisepala	Rubiaceae					10	7.0	7	5.0	12	7.8	6	4.8	35
12	Celosia anthelminthica.	Amaranthaceae	1	0.5	14	6.1			1	0.7	2	1.3			18
13	Rhus natalensis Krauss	Anacardiacea	5	2.6	17	7.5	2	1.4	1	0.7					25
14	Rhoicissus tridentate	Vitaceae.	1	0.5					1	0.7					2
15	Grewia tenax (Forssk.)	Tiliaceae	12	6.2	14	6.1									26
16	Salvadora persica	Salvadoraceae	1	0.5	1	0.4									2
17	Annona reticulata L.	Annonaceae									1	0.7			1
18	Syzygium guineense	Myrtaceae	2	1.0	1	0.4					17	11.1	16	12.7	36
19	Capparis decidua	Capparidaceae									1	0.7			1
20	Rosa abyssincia	Rosaceae	4	2.1	5	2.2	11	7.7	9	6.4	13	8.5	17	13.5	59
21	Rubus apetalus Poir.	Rosaceae			1	0.4	3	2.1	10	7.1	1	0.7	1	0.8	16
22	Momordica foetida	Cucurbitaceae									1	0.7			1
23	Albizia grandibracteata	Leguminosae-							1	0.7					1
24	Phoenix reclinata Jacq	Arecaceae	4	2.1											4
25	Capsicum chinense	Solanaceae							3	2.1					3
26	Ficus sur (F. Capensis)	Moraceae							4	2.9					4
27	Grewia bicolour	Tiliacea	6	3.1	1	0.4									7
28	Ficus sycomorus	Anacardiacea	18	9.2	16	7.0					10	6.5	3	2.4	47
29	Boscia salicifolia	Capparidaceae	3	1.5											3
30	Berchemia discolor	Rhamnaceae	5	2.6											5
31	Oncoba spinosa Forssk	Flacourtiaceae			4	1.8	3	2.11		0.7	5	3.3	3	2.4	16
32	Dovyalis abyssinica	Flacourtiacea											2	1.6	2
33	Cordia sinensis Lam	Boraginaceae	8	4.1	17	7.5									25
34	Meriandra benegalensis	Verbenaceae			4	1.8									4
35	Lex mitis	Ebenaceae	1	0.5	5	2.2	6	4.2	2	1.4	2	1.3	2	1.6	18
36	Rytigynia neglecta	Rubiaceae					1	0.7							1
37	Grewia schweinfurthii	Tiliaceae	4	2.1							1	0.7			5
38	Grewia ferruginea	Tiliaceae	7	3.6	3	1.3					1	0.7			11
39	Mimusops kummel	Sapotaceae	13	6.7	20	8.8	1	0.7	6	4.3	18	11.8	20	15.9	78
40	Myrsine africana L.	Myrsinaceae			1	0.4									1
41	Embelia schimperi	Myrsinaceae					14	9.9	9	6.4	3	2.0			26
42	Acokanthera schimperi	Sterculiaceae	2	1.0			3	2.1			1	0.7			6
43	Euclea racemosa	Ebenaceae	1	0.5	1	0.5			1	0.7	1	0.7	8	6.3	12
44	Ziziphus spina‑	Rhamnaceae.	16	8.2	15	6.6									31
45	Tamarindus indica	Fabaceae	3	1.5	5	2.2			2	1.4	3	2.0	1	0.8	14
46	Oncoba spinosa Forssk.	Flacourtiaceae	1	0.5	1	0.4	18	12.7	11	7.9	6	3.9	9	7.1	46
47	Acacia senegal (L.)	Fabaceae	3	1.5											3
48	Rhus glutinosa	Anacardiaceae									1	0.7			1
49	Combretum molle	Combretaceae	19	9.7	13	5.7	13	9.2	6	4.3	9	5.9	4	3.2	64
50	Osyris quadripartita	Santalaceae					2	1.4							2
51	Cordia Africana	Boraginaceae	2	1.0	1	0.4	17	12.0	16	11.4					36
52	Acacia seyal Del.	Fabaceae	3	1.5	7	3.1	1	0.7	4	2.9	3	2.0			18
53	Allophylus abyssinicus	Anacardiacea	1	0.5	2	0.9	3	2.1	7	5.0	11	7.2	3	2.4	27
54	Acacaia seyal del.**	Fabaceae	10	5.1											10
55	Psidium guajava	Myrtaceae)	12	6.2	20	8.8	14	9.9	18	12.9	18	11.8	17	13.5	99
Total			195	100	228	100	142	100	140	100	153	100	126	100	984
F= frequency,%=percent, PA=Peasant Association

3.4. Operational Description of Wild Edible Fruit Plants on Adaptation, Part Used, Habitat, Mode of Use, Flowering and Fruiting Months

The respondents were asked crosscheck questions that were listed in (Table 4) below. The respondents answered the questionnaires about wild edible fruits about habituate, part used habitat, mode of use, flowering, and fruiting months. In these processes; the adaptation result of wild fruits showed that the highest percentage (72%) was found from wild habituation; while the lowest percentage (16%) was from both wild /domestic habituation (Table 4).

In terms of part used of the wild fruits revealed that the highest percentage (98.2%) of part used was got from the fruit and this result coincides with Sintayo and Zebene (2020), their study findings in a different part of Ethiopia reported that most of the Wild edible fruit plants’ parts used were fruits; while the lowest percentage (1.8%) was got from /leaf/bark/root (Table 4). This study is in line with the work of Adal et al., 2004 that fruit uses accounted for 80% of wild edible food.

But, this is contrasted with the finding of Tilahun, T. and Mirutse, G. (2010) studied in southern Ethiopia, that most Wild edible fruit plants were used as vegetables by harvesting their leaves, young twigs, and upper parts (leaf and stem). The other disagreement finding of this study reported by (Ali et al., 2008) was that most of the edible plant parts were leaves that were consumed after cooking.

The result on the habitat of wild edible fruit” species observed that the highest percentage (73.2%) was indicated from shrubs species; while the lowest percentage (3.6%) was got from herb species (Table 4). This study is in line with (Ameni et al., 2003; Balemie et al., 2004) that the most harvested wild edible fruits were recorded from shrubs than other categories.

Table 4. Structural descriptions of wild edible fruits in percent on habituate, part used, habitat, mode of use, flowering months, and fruiting months.

Adaptation of the species	Frequency	Percent	Flowering Months	Frequency	Percent
Wild	46	72.0	April and July	20	35.7
wild /domestic	9	16.1	April and May	7	12.5
Total	55	100.0	February	1	1.8
Part of the species used			February and April	2	3.6
Fruit	55	98.2	January	3	5.4
Fruit/leaf/bark/root	1	1.8	January and February	2	3.6
Total	56	100.0	June	4	7.1
Habitat of the species			March	2	3.6
Herb	2	3.6	May	15	26.8
Shrubs	41	73.2	Total	56	100.0
Tree	13	23.2	Fruiting month
Total	56	100.0	October & November	8	21.2
Mode of uses			June	6	15.8
as it is	54	96.4	April	4	10.5
as it is/cooked	2	3.6	February	4	10.5
Total	56	100.0	January	4	10.5
			July	4	10.5
			March	4	10.5
			May	4	10.5
				38	100

The result on the mode of use of Wild edible fruit plants indicated that the highest percentage (96.4%) was used fresh; while the lowest percentage (3.6%) was gotten undercooked (Table 4). This study agrees with the findings of Kebu, B., and Fasil, K. (2006), who reported that raw fruits contain the largest percentage of raw edible fruits. Raw edible fruits might be a good source of nutrients that does not lose their nutrients fresh; while boiled or cooked, some essential nutrients might be lost. The other results on flowering and fruiting months of wild edible fruits observed that the highest percentage (35.7% and 14.4%) months were April and July, and October and November, respectively; while the lowest percentage (1.8% and 7.1%) months were flowered in February, September, July, February, and April, respectively (Table 4).

In the parameters, in which Wild edible fruit plants correlated and related with adaptation, part used, habitat, mode of use, flowering, and fruiting months were well stated and counted in (Appendix Table 1).

3.5. Regeneration Trend and Species Diversity of Wild Edible Fruit Plants in the Study Areas

In Daro-Lebu Wereda at Metegudesa PA, the surveillance of Wild edible fruit plants revealed that the highest percentage (30.8%) occurred under Psidium guajava species; while the lowest percentage (5.1%) was under Vangueiria arisepala species (Table 5). On the other hand; an indicator of regeneration trend results with saplings and seedlings of wild edible fruits revealed that the highest percentage (62.1%) occurred under Psidium guajava species; while the lowest percentage (8.3%) occurred under Mimusops kummel, species (Table 5). At Jilbo PA; in Daro-Lebu Wereda likewise; the results on observation of Wild edible fruit plants revealed that the highest percentage (26.2%) occurred under Rosa abyssinica species; while the lowest percentage (4.8%) occurred under Carissa spinarum L. species (Table 5). Similarly; an indicator of regeneration trend results with saplings and seedlings of wild edible fruits revealed that the highest percentage (62.1%) occurred under Psidium guajava species; while the lowest percentage (8.3%) occurred under Mimusops kummel, species (Table 5).

In Chiro Wereda at Nejabas PA; the results of observation of Wild edible fruit plants revealed that the highest percentage (24.3%) has occurred under Carissa spinarum L; while the lowest percentage (2.7%) happened under Cactaceae species (Table 6). On the contrary; the indicator of regeneration trend results with saplings and seedlings of wild edible fruits revealed that the highest percentage (43.8%) was observed under Carissa spinarum L. species; while the lowest percentage (16.7%) occurred under Acacia seyal del. species. On the other hand; the species that hadn’t any indicator of regeneration trend results with saplings and seedlings of wild edible fruits trees/shrubs were occurred under Opuntia ficus-indica/cactus, Allophylus abyssinicus and Myrica salicifolia. Rich species (Table 6).

Whereas at Halewagora PA; in Chiro Wereda the same as other study areas; the results on observation of Wild edible fruit plants discovered that the highest percentage (18.8%) was observed under Carissa spinarum L. species; while the lowest percentage (4.2%) occurred under Oncoba spinosa Forssk. and Rhus natalensis Krauss species (Table 6). Similarly; an indicator of regeneration trend results with saplings and seedlings of Wild edible fruit plants revealed that the highest percentage (57.9%) was observed under Carissa spinarum L. species; while the lowest percentage (37.5%) was observed under Rhus natalensis Krauss species (Table 6). Likewise; the species that hadn’t any indicator of regeneration trend results with saplings and seedlings of wild edible fruits plant was observed under Opuntia ficus-indica/cuctus species (Table 6).

In Gumbi-Bordode Wereda, at Legarba PA; the results of observation of Wild edible fruit plants revealed that the highest percentage (14.6%) has occurred under Rhus natalensis Krauss and Lex mitis species; while the lowest percentage (2.4%) was observed under Toddalia asiatica, Syzygium guineense and Euclea racemosa species (Table 7). On the contrary; the indicator of regeneration trend results with saplings and seedlings of wild edible fruit plants revealed that the highest percentage (57.1%) occurred under Acokanthera schimperi species; while the lowest percentage (8.3%) occurred under Mimusops kummel, species (Table 7).

Whereas at Burqabarkele PA; in Gumbi-Bordode Wereda similarly; the results on observation of Wild edible fruit plants discovered that the highest percentage (18%) occurred under Grewia tenax species; while the lowest percentage (5%) resulted under Balanites aegyptiaca species (Table 7). likewise; an indicator of regeneration trend result with saplings and seedlings of wild edible fruits revealed that the highest percentage (50.9%) occurred under Grewia tenax species; while the lowest percentage (13%) resulted under Euclea racemosa species (Table 7). Likewise; the species those hadn’t any indicator of regeneration trend result with sapling and seedlings of Wild edible fruit plants /shrubs occurred under Ficus sycomorus and Cactaceae species; respectively (Table 7).

Table 5. Observation of species and Sapling trends of a given tees/shrubs in Daro-Lebu Wereda, from 3 transect lines and 12 quadrants in Both PA.

Observation of species			Sapling trends of a given tees/shrubs in Metagudisa PA
Scientific name	Frequency	Percent	Scientific name	Number of sampled trees/shrubs	Total	percent%
Psidium guajava	12	30.8	Psidium guajava	59	95	62.1
Carissa spinarum L.	6	15.4	Rosa abyssincia	47	84	56.0
Oncoba spinosa Forssk.	6	15.4	Oncoba spinosa Forssk.	49	89	55.1
Allophylus abyssinicus	5	12.8	Allophylus abyssinicus	32	63	50.8
Mimusops kummel	4	10.3	Carissa spinarum L.	8	19	42.1
Syzygium guineense	3	7.7	Mimusops kummel	1	12	8.3
Vangueiria arisepala	2	5.1	Number of transacts=3
Total	39	100.	Number of quadrants=12
Observation of species			Sapling trends of a given tees/shrubs Jilbo PA, from 3 transect lines and 11 quadrants
Scientific name	Frequency	Percent	Scientific name	Number sampled trees	Total	Percent
Rosa abyssinica	11	26.2	Psidium guajava	59	95	62.1
Psidium guajava	8	19.0	Carissa spinarum L.	9	15	60.0
Oncoba spinosa Forssk.	7	16.7	Rosa abyssincia	47	84	56.0
Allophylus abyssinicus	7	16.7	Oncoba spinosa	49	89	55.1
Mimusops kummel	6	14.3	Allophylus abyssinicus	32	63	50.8
Carissa spinarum L.	2	4.8	Mimusops kummel	1	12	8.3
Total	42	100	Number of transacts=3
			Number of quadrants=11

The absence of seedlings and saplings under any wild edible plant species in its habitat is an indicator of the regeneration problem. However, this scenario might be occurred due to different factors. Relevant biotic factors can be human activities, grazing, deforestation dispersal agents, and competition. Nevertheless, the exact points of factors of threat for Wild edible fruit plants in the study area are well stated in the following portion and in (Appendix 1-Table 2). Table 5a-Observation of species and Sapling trends of a given tees/shrubs in Daro-Lebu Wereda, from 3 transect lines and 12 quadrants in Both PA.

Table 6. Observation of species and Sapling trends of a given tees/shrubs in Chiro Wereda, from 3 transect lines and 9 quadrants in Both PA.

Observation of species			Sapling trends of a given tees/shrubs in Nejabas PA, from 3 transect lines and 9 quadrants
Scientific name	Frequency	Percent	Scientific name	Number sampled trees	Total	Percent
Carissa spinarum L.	9	24.3	Carissa spinarum L	16	58	27.6
Lex mitis	7	18.9	Cactaceae	0	8	0.0
Cactaceae	5	13.5	Embelia schimperi	14	32	43.8
Acacia seyal Del.	4	10.8	Acacia seyal Del.	2	12	16.7
Euphorbia abyssinica/cuctus	3	8.1	Lex mitis	19	54	35.2
Allophylus abyssinicus	2	5.4	Oncoba spinosa Forssk.	1	4	25.0
Myrica salicifolia	1	2.7	Allophylus abyssinicus	0	3	0.0
Myrsine africana L.	1	2.7	Myrsine africana L.	4	10	40.0
Oncoba spinosa Forssk.	1	2.7	Myrica salicifolia	0	2	0.0
Total	37	100.0	Number of transacts=3
			Number of quadrants=9
observation of species			Sapling trends of a given tees/shrubs in shrubs in, Halewagora PA, from 3 transect lines and 9 quadrants
Scientific name	Frequency	Percent	Scientific name	Number sampled trees	Total	Percent
Carissa spinarum L.	9	18.8	Carissa spinarum L.	66	114	57.9
Rhus natalensis Krauss	7	14.6	Embelia schimperi	83	147	56.5
Rosa abyssincia	2	4.2	Lex mitis	51	101	50.5
Lex mitis	6	12.5	Acokanthera schimperi	8	16	50.0
Embelia schimperi	6	12.5	Rosa abyssincia	7	15	46.7
Acokanthera schimperi	4	8.3	Allophylus abyssinicus	5	12	41.7
Oncoba spinosa Forssk	2	4.2	Acacia seyal Del.	11	29	37.9
Cactaceae	3	6.3	Rhus natalensis Krauss	9	24	37.5
Acacia seyal Del.	5	10.4	Cactaceae	0	14	0.0
Allophylus abyssinicus	3	6.3	Number of transacts=3
Total	48	100	Number of quadrants=9

Table 7. Observation of species and Sapling trends of a given tees/shrubs in Gumbi-Bordode Wereda, from 3 transect lines and 9 quadrants in Both PA.

Observation of species			Sapling trends of a given tees/shrubs in, Legarba PA
Scientific name	Frequency	Percent	Scientific name	Number sampled trees	Total	Percent
Rhus natalensis Krauss	6	14.6	Acokanthera schimperi	4	7	57.1
Lex mitis	6	14.6	Celosia anthelminthica.	9	17	52.9
Carissa spinarum L.	4	9.8	Rhus natalensis Krauss	25	49	51.0
Mimusops kummel	4	9.8	Grewia tenax (Forssk.)	14	28	50.0
Acokanthera schimperi	4	9.8	Lex mitis	18	36	50.0
Grewia tenax (Forssk.)	3	7.3	Myrica salicifolia. Rich	17	41	41.5
Grewia bicolour	3	7.3	Rhus natalensis Krauss	2	5	40.0
Myrica salicifolia. Rich	2	4.9	Vangueiria arisepala	2	5	40.0
Vangueiria arisepala	2	4.9	Grewia bicolour	8	20	40.0
Celosia anthelminthica.	2	4.9	Acokanthera schimperi	7	18	38.9
Oncoba spinosa Forssk.	2	4.9	Carissa spinarum L.	11	29	37.9
Toddalia asiatica	1	2.4	Syzygium guineense	1	4	25.0
Syzygium guineense	1	2.4	Mimusops kummel	1	12	8.3
Euclea racemosa	1	2.4
Total	41	100	Number of transacts=3
			Number of quadrants=9
observation of species			Sapling trends of a given tees/shrubs Burqaberkele PA
Scientific name	Frequency	Percent	Scientific name	Number sampled trees	Total	Percent
Grewia tenax (Forssk.)	8	18	Grewia tenax (Forssk.)	28	55	50.9
Cactaceae	6	14	Celosia anthelminthica.	10	22	45.5
Grewia ferruginea	5	11	Grewia ferruginea	11	26	42.3
Grewia schweinfurthii	4	9	Grewia schweinfurthii	8	19	42.1
Euclea racemosa	4	9	Boscia salicifolia	5	12	41.7
Celosia anthelminthica.	3	7	Grewia bicolour	7	17	41.2
Grewia bicolour	3	7	Mimusops kummel	3	13	23.1
Ficus sycomorus	3	7	Balanites aegyptiaca	1	5	20.0
Boscia salicifolia	3	7	Euclea racemosa	3	23	13.0
Mimusops kummel	3	7	Ficus sycomorus	0	4	0.0
Balanites aegyptiaca	2	5	Cactaceae	0	33	0.0
Total	44	100	Number of transacts=3
			Number of quadrants=10

3.6. Major Factors of Threat for Wild Edible Fruit Plants in the Study Areas

High population pressure, agricultural growth, energy consumption, and inefficient natural resource utilization are the major threats to wild edible fruit plants. So the threat to wild edible fruit plants in the research areas was (land degradation and grazing, forest removal for agriculture, fuel wood, charcoal, and timber, and harvesting of stems, leaves, and bark.

The result on major threats of wild edible fruit plants showed that the highest percentage (45%) was observed with the Clearing of forest for Agriculture; while the lowest percentage (5.70%) was recorded with Stem, leaves, and bark harvest (Table 8 and Appendix 1-Table 2). Furthermore, construction, settlement, and unwise utilization are the common threat to Wild edible fruit plants The result of this study is consistent with the reports of (Tebkew et al., 2014) that high population growth, agricultural land demand, lack of alternative fuel energies and plantations, resource use interest conflict between local communities.

Generally; wild edible fruit plants gathered in the natural environments without care of management which is a deterioration of forest products, being unfamiliar food, public ignorance and nonexistence of consciousness may make them violated for exclusive. These scenarios are being exposed to threats of Wild edible fruit plants as a result of the anthropogenic effects. This study in line with

[9]

reported that a lower level of management and undermine were given for wild edible fruit plants.

Table 8. Major threats to wild edible fruit plants in the study areas.

Threat factors		Frequency	Percent
1	Land degradation and grazing	414	42.3
2	Clearing of forest for Agriculture	440	45.0
3	Fire, timber, and charcoal	68	6.9
4	Stem, leaves, and bark harvest	56	5.7
Total		978	100.

3.7. Association Between Socio-economic Factors and Wild Edible Fruit Plants’ Parameter

Age correlated positively with household size (p<0.006) which is statistically significant, and the other negatively correlated that Land hold size with Age (p<-0.004), and Education status with household size (p <0.031) which showed statistically significant in (Table 9). A positive correlation indicated that both variables are increased with each other. In this situation, as age ranges rise or drop concurrently, household size increases or decreases (Table 9). On the other hand, a negative correlation indicates that as one variable decreases, the other increases. Therefore; when lands hold size increases; age categories decrease; and when education status increases; household size decreases (Table 9).

Shrubs correlated with fruits; direct uses correlated with trees and shrubs; food correlated with fruit, shrubs, and direct uses; feed correlated with fruit and direct uses; income correlated with fruit and direct uses; pasture correlated with fruit, trees, shrubs, direct uses, food and income; farmers correlated with fruits, shrubs, direct uses, food, income, and pasture; young collectors correlated with fruits, trees, shrubs, direct uses, food, income, pastures, and farmers; men collectors correlated with fruits, direct uses, food, income, pastures, and farmers and young; women collectors correlated with fruits, shrubs, direct uses, food, income, pastures, farmers, young and men; elder collectors correlated with feed are highly significant (P<0.0001) and positively associated under the operational description of Wild edible fruit plants based on a given parameter (Table 10).

On the other hand, Land degradation correlated with farmers; forest clear for Agriculture correlated with fruit, trees, direct uses, food, income, pastures, farmers, young and women; fire and charcoal correlated with women are highly significant (P<0.001) and positively associated under factors of threat for Wild edible fruit plants based on the given parameters (Table 10).

Table 9. Pearson Correlation between socio-economic factors. (N = 120), Prob > |r| under H0: Rho=0.

Correlation with:	Sex	Age	Household size	Land hold size	Education status
Age	-0.006 0.949	1
Household size	-0.031 0.740	0.251 0.006	1
Land hold size	-0.054 0.56	-0.319 0.004	-0.06 0.514	1
Education status	-0.083 0.370	0.079 0.392	-0.198 0.031	-0.02359 0.8033	1

Table 10. Pearson Correlation Coefficients and relationship within the wild edible fruits variable.

Variables		Part used	Habitat		use mode	Purpose of utilization
Variables		fruit	tree	shrubs	Direct	food	feed	medicine	income
Habitat	Tree	0.477**
Habitat	Shrubs	0.681***	-0.176^NS
Use mode	Direct	0.992***	0.450**	0.716***
Purpose of utilization	Food	0.951***	0.455**	0.728***	0.952***
	Feed	0.515***	-0.022^NS	0.399**	0.501***	0.322*
	Medicine	0.112^NS	0.087^NS	-0.033^NS	0.111^NS	-0.119^NS	0.284**
	Income	0.706***	0.464**	0.361**	0.680***	0.575***	0.487**	0.150^NS
More inspired by	Pastures	0.971***	0.515***	0.645***	0.955***	0.952***	0.472**	0.014^NS	0.696***
More inspired by	Farmers	0.949***	0.493**	0.616***	0.920***	0.941***	0.421**	0.014^NS	0.574***
Collected by	Young	0.911***	0.546***	0.576***	0.904***	0.944***	0.303**	-0.081^NS	0.594***
	Men	0.794***	0.478**	0.428**	0.801***	0.680***	0.380**	0.475**	0.488**
	Women	0.879***	0.422**	0.708***	0.923***	0.872***	0.396**	0.079^NS	0.559***
	Elder	0.488**	0.122^NS	0.234^NS	0.463***	0.318*	0.524***	0.316**	0.377**
Factor of threat	Land Degrading	0.493**	0.162^NS	0.409**	0.468**	0.450**	0.313**	0.147^NS	0.104^NS
	F. Cr. Agricultur	0.757***	0.625***	0.428**	0.736***	0.750***	0.322*	-0.116^NS	0.774***
	Fire & Charcoal	0.235^NS	0.019^NS	0.424**	0.356**	0.293*	-0.007^NS	0.017^NS	0.027^NS
Correlation is significant at the 0.001 level; *. significant at the 0.01 level. . significant at the 0.05 level; ^NS, not significant

Variables		More inspired by		Collected by
Variables		pasture	farmers	young	men	women	elder
Habitat	Tree
Habitat	Shrubs
Use mode	Direct
Purpose of utilization	Food
	Feed
	Medicine
	Income
More inspired by	Pastures
More inspired by	Farmers	0.937***
Collected by	Young	0.950***	0.893***
	Men	0.690***	0.720***	0.626***
	Women	0.849***	0.764***	0.815***	0.719***
	Elder	0.388**	0.462***	0.223^NS	0.441**	0.308**
Factor of threat	Land Degrading	0.468**	0.515***	0.482**	0.425**	0.339**	0.260^NS
	F. Cr. Agricultur	0.778***	0.736***	0.690***	0.472**	0.625***	0.391**
	Fire & Charcoal	0.183^NS	0.059^NS	0.250^NS	0.281*	0.610***	-0.082^NS
, Correlation is significant at the 0.001 level; *. significant at the 0.01 level. . significant at the 0.05 level; ^NS, not significant

4. Conclusion and Recommendation

Wild edible fruit plants have a considerable character in complementary food provision, income generation, modification, and nutritional security in different parts of the country. Furthermore, the species are versatile, thus significant in supplementary food delivery, fodder, fuel-wood, income generation, biodiversity conservation, and nutritional security in various regions at the bad and good times among others. However, the species are underutilized and threatened by misconception factors of anthropogenic pressure in natural ecosystems.

The misconception factors are land degradation and grazing, clearing of forest for agriculture, fire, timber and charcoal, Stem, leaves, root, and bark harvest. Consequently, a community-based forest management system, awareness creation, and growing of wild edible fruit plants on farms and homesteads level are mandatory for any users to save such kinds of delusion problems.

Therefore; the absence and the lowest number of seedlings and saplings under the sampled quadrant of Wild edible fruit plants in its habitat is an indicator of a regeneration problem. In this study, imperfection and threatened species might be occurred due to misconceptions about utilities across Wereda. Those are Mimusops kummel is the lowest regeneration species in Daro-Lebu Wereda. Cactaceae /cactus, Allophylus abyssinicus and Myrica salicifolia and Ficus sycomorus species are the absence of seedlings and saplings under the sampled quadrants in Chiro and Gumbi-bordode Weredas; respectively.

Generally; supporting and promoting indigenous knowledge of farmers to wards encourage domestication, and in-situ and ex-situ conservation through awareness creation, value addition, and commercialization of Wild edible fruit plants are mandatory. All these arguments should help to maximize the multidimensional advantage of communities; while contributing to the sustainable utilization of wild edible fruit plant species eco-friendly.

Specifically; the most threatened and under-regenerated Wild edible fruit plant species of the study area priority should be given to the critical collection, domestication, in-situ and ex-situ conservation, and promotion of on-farm cultivation in the form of agroforestry systems.

The research gap should be focused on nutrient analysis, collection and in-situ and ex-situ conservation, genetic improvement, fruit processing, and analysis of the economic contribution of Wild edible fruit plant species.

Abbreviations

A	Land Degradation And Grazing
B	Clearing Of Forest
C	Fire, Timber and Charcoal
D	Stem, Leave and Bark Harvest
*.	Significant at the 0.05 Level
**.	Significant at the 0.01 Level
^NS	Not Significant
m.a.s.l.	Meter Above Sea-level
No.	Number
PA	Pesant Asocciation

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to express their gratitude to IQQO for supporting this research project. We are also grateful to Mechara Agricultural Research Center and all of the workers, particularly the Agroforestry team members, for their diligent efforts in making the work a success.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Appendix

Table 1. The relationship with source, part used, habitat, flowering, mode of uses, flowering months and fruiting months of wild edible fruit species.

	Scientific name	Family name	Local name (Oromic)	Habituate	part of species used	Habitat	Mode of uses	flowering Months	Fruiting month
1	Carissa spinarum L.	Apocynaceae	Agamsa	wild	Fruit/leaf/bark/root	Shrubs	fresh/cooked	June	September & October
2	Hypoestes aristata	Acanthaceae	Ambashok	wild /domestic	fruit	shrubs	fresh	May	October &December
3	flavescens	Tiliaceae	Amurjii	domestic	fruit	shrubs	fresh	May	march
4	Piper nigrum	Piperaceae	Asgube/qundo	Wild	fruit	shrubs	fresh	June	December
5	Balanites aegyptiaca	Balantiaceae	Badano	wild	fruit	shrubs	fresh	March	June
6	Toddalia asiatica	Rutaceae	Barbarisha	wild	fruit	shrubs	fresh	June	September
7	Portulaca quadrifida.	Portulacaceae	Gishxa	wild	fruit/leave	herb	fresh	January &February	October
8	Myrica salicifolia. Rich	Loganiaceae	Biqqaa	wild /domestic	fruit	tree	fresh	April	December
9	Physalis micrantha	Solanaceae	Bissi	wild	fruit	herb	fresh	April	January
10	Vangueiria arisepala	Rubiaceae	Bururi	wild	fruit	shrubs	fresh	April	February
11	Celosia anthelminthica	Amaranthaceae	Cicibaco	wild	fruit	shrubs	fresh	April	April
12	Rhus natalensis Krauss	Anacardiacea	Dabobessa	wild	fruit	shrubs	fresh	April & may	may
13	Rhoicissus tridentata	Vitaceae.	Dhangago	wild	fruit	shrubs	fresh	January	June
14	Grewia tenax (Forssk.)	Tiliaceae	Eka fila	wild	fruit	shrubs	fresh	April & may	July
15	Salvadora persica	Salvadoraceae	Fesob/riga ilke	wild	fruit	shrubs	fresh	April	august
16	Annona reticulata L.	Annonaceae	Gishxa	wild /domestic	fruit	shrubs	fresh	April	September
17	Syzygium guineense	Myrtaceae	Bedesa/goha	wild	fruit	tree	fresh	February	June
18	Capparis decidua	Capparidaceae	Gomar	wild	fruit	shrubs	fresh	January	November
19	Rosa abyssincia	Rosaceae	Gora	wild	fruit	shrubs	fresh	April	December
20	Rubus apetalus	Rosaceae	Gora galo	wild	fruit	shrubs	fresh	April	January
21	Momordica foetida	Cucurbitaceae	Gura jarsa	wild	fruit	shrubs	fresh	April	February
22	Albizia grandibracteae	Leguminosae-	Halawagora	wild	fruit	shrubs	fresh	April	march
23	Phoenix reclinata wa	Arecaceae	Haxi	wild	fruit	shrubs	fresh	February &April	April
24	Capsicum chinense	Solanaceae	Habarbari	wild	fruit	shrubs	fresh	June	May
25	Ficus sur (F. capensis)	Moraceae	Habru	wild	fruit	tree	fresh	January	June
26	Grewia bicolour	Tiliacea	Haroresa	wild	fruit	shrubs	fresh	April	July
27	Ficus sycomorus	Anacardiacea	Hudha	wild	fruit	shrubs	fresh	April &May	August
28	Boscia salicifolia Oliv.	Capparidaceae	Huduqable	wild	fruit	shrubs	fresh	April	September
29	Berchemia discolor	Rhamnaceae	Jajjabaa	wild	fruit	tree	fresh	April &May	October
30	Oncoba spinosa Forssk	Flacourtiaceae	Jilbo	wild	fruit	tree	fresh	April & May	November
31	Dovyalis abyssinica	Flacourtiacea	Koshami	wild	fruit	shrubs	fresh	May	December
32	Cordia sinensis Lam	Boraginaceae	Mandherro	wild	fruit	shrubs	fresh	April	January
33	Meriandra benegalensis	Verbenaceae	Midhaan bera	wild	fruit	shrubs	fresh	May	February
34	lex mitis	Ebenaceae	Miesa	wild	fruit	shrubs	fresh	May	March
35	Rytigynia neglecta	Rubiaceae	Mijilo	wild	fruit	shrubs	fresh	April	April
36	Grewia schweinfurthii	Tiliaceae	Mudhugure	wild	fruit	shrubs	fresh	May	May
37	Grewia ferruginea	Tiliaceae	Ogomdii	wild	fruit	shrubs	fresh	March	June
38	Mimusops kummel	Sapotaceae	Oladi	wild	fruit	tree	fresh	January &February	July
39	Myrsine africana L.	Myrsinaceae	Qacamo	wild	fruit	shrubs	fresh	May	August
40	Embelia schimperi	Myrsinaceae	Qacu	wild	fruit	shrubs	fresh	May	September
41	Acokanthera schimperi	Sterculiaceae	Qaraaru	wild	fruit	shrubs	fresh	April	October
42	Euclea racemosa	Ebenaceae	Qurqura	wild /domestic	fruit	tree	fresh	February &April	November
43	Ziziphus spina‑christi	Rhamnaceae.	Qurqura janato	wild /domestic	fruit	tree	fresh/cooked	April	December
44	Tamarindus indica	Fabaceae	Roqa	wild /domestic	fruit	tree	fresh	April	January
45	Oncoba spinosa Forssk.	Flacourtiaceae	Shibirqoli	wild	fruit	tree	fresh	May	February
46	Acacia senegal (L.)	Fabaceae	Sophensa	wild	fruit	shrubs	fresh	April	March
47	Rhus glutinosa	Anacardiaceae	Tilam	wild	fruit	shrubs	fresh	May	April
48	Cactaceae	Cactaceae	Tinii	wild /domestic	fruit	herb	fresh	April & May	May
49	Combretum molle	Combretaceae	Tuqaa/birecha	wild	fruit	shrubs	fresh	May	June
50	Osyris quadripartita	Santalaceae	Wato	wild	fruit	shrubs	fresh	Nay	December
51	Cordia africana	Boraginaceae	Wadesa	wild /domestic	fruit	tree	fresh	April &May	August&Septembr
52	Acacia seyal Del.	Fabaceae	Wantafulas	wild	fruit	tree	fresh	May	December
53	Allophylus abyssinicus	Anacardiacea	Xaxesa	wild	fruit	shrubs	fresh	April	December
54	Acacaia seyal del	Fabaceae	Xunxuna/wacu	wild	fruit	shrubs	fresh	May	October& Decembr
55	Psidium guajava	Myrtaceae)	Zayitunaa	wild /domestic	fruit	shrubs	fresh	May	Septembr& Octobr

Table 2. The major Factors of Threats for wild edible fruits.

factors of treat
species name	Family name	A=42.3%	B =45%	C=6.9%	D=5.7%	Total
Puntia ficus-indica (L.)	Cactaceae	4	0	0	0	4
Carissa spinarum L.	Apocynaceae	1	11	0	59	71
Hypoestes aristata	Acanthaceae	9	0	0	0	9
flavescens	Tiliaceae	1	0	0	0	1
Piper nigrum	Piperaceae	2	0	0	0	2
Balanites aegyptiaca	Balantiaceae	2	0	0	0	2
Toddalia asiatica (L.)	Rutaceae	1	0	0	0	1
Portulaca quadrifida.	Portulacaceae	0	7	0	0	7
Combretum molle	Loganiaceae	1	13	0	0	14
Physalis micrantha	Solanaceae	3	0	0	0	3
Vangueiria arisepala	Rubiaceae	45	1	0	0	46
Celosia anthelminthica	Amaranthaceae	18	0	0	0	18
Rhus natalensis Krauss	Anacardiacea	0	25	0	0	25
Rhoicissus tridentate	Vitaceae.	2	0	0	0	2
Grewia tenax	Tiliaceae	11	15	0	0	26
Salvadora persica	Salvadoraceae	2	0	0	0	2
Annona reticulata L	Annonaceae	1	0	0	0	1
Syzygium guineense	Myrtaceae	0	34	0	0	36
Capparis decidua	Capparidaceae	1	0	0	0	1
Rosa abyssinica	Rosaceae	56	3	0	0	59
Rubus apetalus Poir.	Rosaceae	16	0	0	0	16
Momordica foetida	Cucurbitaceae	1	0	0	0	1
Albizia grandibracteata	Leguminosae-	1	0	0	0	1
Phoenix reclinata Jacq	Arecaceae	4	0	0	0	4
Capsicum chinense	Solanaceae	3	0	0	0	3
Ficus sur (F. capensis)	Moraceae	4	0	0	0	4
Grewia bicolour	Tiliacea	1	6	0	0	7
Ficus sycomorus	Anacardiacea	29	18	0	0	47
Boscia salicifolia Oliv.	Capparidaceae	3	0	0	0	3
Berchemia discolor	Rhamnaceae	0	5	0	0	5
Oncoba spinosa Forssk	Flacourtiaceae	4	10	0	0	16
Dovyalis abyssinica	Flacourtiacea	1	1	0	0	2
Cordia sinensis Lam	Boraginaceae	5	20	0	0	25
Lantana camara L.	Verbenaceae	4	0	0	0	4
lex mitis	Ebenaceae	17	1	0	0	18
Rytigynia neglecta	Rubiaceae	1	0	0	0	1
Ximenia americana	Tiliaceae	2	3	0	0	5
Grewia ferruginea	Tiliaceae	11	0	0	0	11
Mimusops kummel	Sapotaceae	1	74	0	0	79
Myrsine africana L.	Myrsinaceae	1	0	0	0	1
Embelia schimperi	Myrsinaceae	25	0	0	1	26
Acokanthera	Sterculiaceae	3	3	0	0	6
Euclea racemosa	Ebenaceae	1	2	9	0	12
Ziziphus spina	Rhamnaceae.	1	0	30	0	31
Tamarindus indica	Fabaceae	0	14	0	0	14
Oncoba spinosa	Flacourtiaceae	4	42	0	0	46
Acacia senegal (L.)	Acacia senegal (L.)	3	0	0	0	3
Rhus glutinosa	Rhus glutinosa	0	1	0	0	1
Combretum molle	Combretum molle	1	0	0	0	1
Osyris quadripartita	Osyris quadripartita Decn	2	0	0	0	2
Cordia Africana	Cordia africana	0	36	0	0	36
Acacia seyal Del.	Acacia seyal Del.	0	0	17	0	17
Allophylus abyssinicus	Allophylus abyssinicus	27	0	0	0	27
Acacaia seyal Del.**	Acacaia seyal del.	10	0	0	0	10
Psidium guajava	Psidium guajava	5	94	0	0	99
Total		354	439	68	56	914
* A=land degradation and grazing, B=clearing of forest, C=fire, timber and charcoal, D= stem, leave and bark harvest*

References

[1]	Abera, M. (2022) Ethnobotanical Study of Wild edible fruit plants and Their Indigenous Knowledge in Sedie Muja Wereda, South Gondar Zone, Northwestern Ethiopia. American Journal of Plant Sciences.
[2]	Addis, G. (2009). Wild and Semi-Wild edible fruit plants of Hamar and Xonso (South Ethiopia) with emphasis on their Ethnobotany and nutritional composition of selected species. Ph.D. thesis, Addis Ababa University.
[3]	Asfaw, Z. (2009). The future of wild food plants in southern Ethiopia: Ecosystem conservation coupled with enhancement of the roles of key social groups.
[4]	Beluhan, S. and Ranogajec, A. (2010). Chemical composition and non-volatile components of Croatian wild edible mushrooms. Journal of Food Chemistry.
[5]	Demel Teketay., Feyera Senbeta., Maclachlan, M., Bekele, M. and Barklund, P. (2010). Edible Wild Plants in Ethiopia. Addis Ababa University Press, 575 pp.
[6]	Ermias L, Asfaw Z, Kelbessa E and van damme P (2011). Wild edible plants in Ethiopia: a review on their potential to combat food insecurity.
[7]	Grivetti, L. and Ogle, B. (2000). Value of traditional foods in meeting macro and micronutrient needs: the wild plant connection. Review of SIDA, Nairobi, Kenya.
[8]	Ruffo, C. K., Birnie A. &Tengnäs B. (2002). Edible wild plants of Tanzania Regional land.
[9]	Tebkew M, Asfaw. and Zewudie S. (2014). Underutilized Wild edible fruit plants in the Chilga Wereda, northwestern Ethiopia: focus on wild woody plants. Journal of Agricultural Food Security-related.
[10]	Tilahun, T. and Mirutse, G. (2010). Ethnobotanical Study of Wild edible fruit plants of Kara and Kewego Semi-Pastoralist People in Lower Omo River Valley, Debub Omo Zone, SNNPR, Ethiopia. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine.

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Diriba, A., Gizaw, W., Dekeba, S. (2025). Assessment of Wild Edible Fruit Plants in East Oromia Region, Ethiopia. International Journal of Science, Technology and Society, 13(3), 97-118. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijsts.20251303.12

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Diriba, A.; Gizaw, W.; Dekeba, S. Assessment of Wild Edible Fruit Plants in East Oromia Region, Ethiopia. Int. J. Sci. Technol. Soc. 2025, 13(3), 97-118. doi: 10.11648/j.ijsts.20251303.12

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Diriba A, Gizaw W, Dekeba S. Assessment of Wild Edible Fruit Plants in East Oromia Region, Ethiopia. Int J Sci Technol Soc. 2025;13(3):97-118. doi: 10.11648/j.ijsts.20251303.12

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@article{10.11648/j.ijsts.20251303.12,
author = {Alemayehu Diriba and Wasihun Gizaw and Shimelis Dekeba},
title = {Assessment of Wild Edible Fruit Plants in East Oromia Region, Ethiopia
},
journal = {International Journal of Science, Technology and Society},
volume = {13},
number = {3},
pages = {97-118},
doi = {10.11648/j.ijsts.20251303.12},
url = {https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijsts.20251303.12},
eprint = {https://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/pdf/10.11648.j.ijsts.20251303.12},
abstract = {Wild edible fruit plants are essential standing in all parts of the world as a subsidiary food basket on daily basis. They are means of survival for rural communities with food and feed consumption, especially during times of drought, famine, shocks, and risks. This study intended to identify, and document scientific data, to get the constraint and opportunity potential of Wild edible fruit plants. Implementation through assessed species, partly used, habitat, mode of uses, flowering months, fruiting months, and factors of threats of wild edible fruits plants. Structured and semi-structured questionnaire interviews, key informant guided, and species quantification along 18 transact lines on 60 sampled quadrants were used to collect data in the west Hararghe zone at Daro-Lebu, Chiro, and Gumbi Bordode Weredas on six PAs. A total of 120 randomly selected sample households were interviewed for data collection. Both quantitative and qualitative data analyses were made. Descriptive analyses were made to analyze the data using SPSS version 16.0. The study embraced a total of 55 Wild edible fruit plants In addition to food values, these plants provide diverse benefits to the existing community including income, fuel wood, fencing, construction, medicine, and fodder. The top five highly impersonated wild edible fruit plant species by respondents were Psidium guajava, Mimusops kummel, Carissa spinarum L., Rosa abyssinica, Ficus sycomorus, and Oncoba spinosa forssk. However, most of them were threatened by anthropogenic factors through misconception utilities. The threat factors such as land degradation and grazing, clearing of forests for agriculture, fire, timber and charcoal, Stem, leaves, root, and bark harvest. To alleviate, the entire threat of wild edible fruit plant species; a community-based forest management system, awareness creation, and growing of wild edible fruit plant species at farms and homesteads level, is mandatory for any forest resource users. The other point is the absence of seedlings and saplings under wild edible fruit plant species in its habitat is an indicator of a regeneration problem. Therefore; the most threatened and unregenerated wild edible fruit plant species of the study areas priority should be given to the critical collection, domestication, in-situ and ex-situ conservation, and promotion of on-farm cultivation in the form of agroforestry systems. Further investigation should be considered on the collection, nutrient content analyses, in-situ and ex-situ conservation, wise utilization, and popularization of Wild edible fruit plants through forest management. These are vital points to be deliberated forward.
},
year = {2025}
}

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TY - JOUR
T1 - Assessment of Wild Edible Fruit Plants in East Oromia Region, Ethiopia

AU - Alemayehu Diriba
AU - Wasihun Gizaw
AU - Shimelis Dekeba
Y1 - 2025/06/30
PY - 2025
N1 - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijsts.20251303.12
DO - 10.11648/j.ijsts.20251303.12
T2 - International Journal of Science, Technology and Society
JF - International Journal of Science, Technology and Society
JO - International Journal of Science, Technology and Society
SP - 97
EP - 118
PB - Science Publishing Group
SN - 2330-7420
UR - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijsts.20251303.12
AB - Wild edible fruit plants are essential standing in all parts of the world as a subsidiary food basket on daily basis. They are means of survival for rural communities with food and feed consumption, especially during times of drought, famine, shocks, and risks. This study intended to identify, and document scientific data, to get the constraint and opportunity potential of Wild edible fruit plants. Implementation through assessed species, partly used, habitat, mode of uses, flowering months, fruiting months, and factors of threats of wild edible fruits plants. Structured and semi-structured questionnaire interviews, key informant guided, and species quantification along 18 transact lines on 60 sampled quadrants were used to collect data in the west Hararghe zone at Daro-Lebu, Chiro, and Gumbi Bordode Weredas on six PAs. A total of 120 randomly selected sample households were interviewed for data collection. Both quantitative and qualitative data analyses were made. Descriptive analyses were made to analyze the data using SPSS version 16.0. The study embraced a total of 55 Wild edible fruit plants In addition to food values, these plants provide diverse benefits to the existing community including income, fuel wood, fencing, construction, medicine, and fodder. The top five highly impersonated wild edible fruit plant species by respondents were Psidium guajava, Mimusops kummel, Carissa spinarum L., Rosa abyssinica, Ficus sycomorus, and Oncoba spinosa forssk. However, most of them were threatened by anthropogenic factors through misconception utilities. The threat factors such as land degradation and grazing, clearing of forests for agriculture, fire, timber and charcoal, Stem, leaves, root, and bark harvest. To alleviate, the entire threat of wild edible fruit plant species; a community-based forest management system, awareness creation, and growing of wild edible fruit plant species at farms and homesteads level, is mandatory for any forest resource users. The other point is the absence of seedlings and saplings under wild edible fruit plant species in its habitat is an indicator of a regeneration problem. Therefore; the most threatened and unregenerated wild edible fruit plant species of the study areas priority should be given to the critical collection, domestication, in-situ and ex-situ conservation, and promotion of on-farm cultivation in the form of agroforestry systems. Further investigation should be considered on the collection, nutrient content analyses, in-situ and ex-situ conservation, wise utilization, and popularization of Wild edible fruit plants through forest management. These are vital points to be deliberated forward.

VL - 13
IS - 3
ER -

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Author Information

Alemayehu Diriba

Oromia Agricultural Research Institute, Mechara Agricultural Research Center, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

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http://orcid.org/0000-0001-7873-1821
Wasihun Gizaw

Oromia Agricultural Research Institute, Mechara Agricultural Research Center, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

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Shimelis Dekeba

Oromia Agricultural Research Institute, Mechara Agricultural Research Center, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

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Figure 1

Figure 1. Study area Map.

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APA Style

Diriba, A., Gizaw, W., Dekeba, S. (2025). Assessment of Wild Edible Fruit Plants in East Oromia Region, Ethiopia. International Journal of Science, Technology and Society, 13(3), 97-118. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijsts.20251303.12

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Diriba, A.; Gizaw, W.; Dekeba, S. Assessment of Wild Edible Fruit Plants in East Oromia Region, Ethiopia. Int. J. Sci. Technol. Soc. 2025, 13(3), 97-118. doi: 10.11648/j.ijsts.20251303.12

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Diriba A, Gizaw W, Dekeba S. Assessment of Wild Edible Fruit Plants in East Oromia Region, Ethiopia. Int J Sci Technol Soc. 2025;13(3):97-118. doi: 10.11648/j.ijsts.20251303.12

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TY - JOUR
T1 - Assessment of Wild Edible Fruit Plants in East Oromia Region, Ethiopia

VL - 13
IS - 3
ER -

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